Ziryab, the court musician fromBaghdad who traveled to Spain in the 9th century, stopped first in the great Muslim city of Kairouan before going on to Cordoba. Kairouan was then a thriving center of North African (Maghrebi) culture. Ziryab incorporated elements of North African sound to arrive in Al-Andalus with a unique style which eventually became known as Andalusian music.

The malouf musical style is an important part of Tunisian identity, but the modern form sounds perhaps quite different than the form which originated well-over four centuries ago. This is due in part to the influence introduced to the music by the Ottomans, namely by Ottoman governor and musician Muhammed al-Rashid.

An essential structural element of malouf is the nuba, which consists of several sections, called isstifa’a msader. These are typically instrumental pieces, altered under the Ottoman Empire when Turkish-style instruments and compositions entered the music. The silsla and attouq are sung poems, typically based on a form of classical Arabic poetry, qasidah.

Traditionally, and following the general guidelines of qasidah poety, songs are often narrations in which the poet reflects upon a figurative journey. According to 9th century Arabic writer Ibn Qutaybah in his Book of Poetry and Poets, the poet begins by recalling a lost love, but then moves on to contemplate the harshness of life, and finally, reaches some conclusion, or moral of the story. Common subject matter is the dream-like scenario revolving around the poet’s pursuit of his love’s caravan, which remains forever beyond his reach.

Through only just over a dozen original nuba have survived to modern day, legend has it there once existed a different nuba for each day of the year. In contemporary Tunisia, malouf has gone beyond folk song to encompass a number of variations. These include the rather grand symphonic orchestra style, inspired by Western and Egyptian classical music. The influential Rashidiyya Orchestra leads the way in this new style of malouf, though modern popular singers have also made innovations. Best-known artists of the style include Tunisia’s pioneering all-female group, El-Azifet, which has succeeding in sharing malouf with enthusiastic audiences around the globe.

Other Tunisian musicians of the 20th century include Anouar Braham, as well as vocalists El Ofrit, Lotfi Bouchnak, Khemais Tarnane, Louisa Tounsia, Saliha, Hedi Jouini, Ali Riahi, Saleh Mehdi, and Fethia Khairi. Other popular singers are Latifa, traditional chant singer Belgacem Bougenna, and also Fatma Bousseha, Hedi Habbouba, Salah El Farzit, Saber el Robbai, and Faouzi Ben Gamra.

For music lovers worldwide, Tunisia hosts an annual festival of jazz in the city of Tabarka. Past years have brought jazz-funk masters Stanley Clark and George Duke. On the same stage, other local artists including the Neelo Feel Project have shared their jazz and Maghrebi fusion sounds, alongside bands from New Orleans, Poland, Russia, Switzerland, and France.

Other festivals include the Sahara Festival in Douz and the Arab Andalusian Music Festival in Testour. Interestingly, the Sahara festival originated as a Bedouin marriage market which has since evolved into a relatively large celebration of traditional music, dance, storytelling, and Tunisian food. Camel races also go in the heartland oasis during this time.